.
|
Saffron crocus
|
|
|
|
C. sativus blossom
with crimson stigmas.
|
|
Scientific classification
|
|
Kingdom:
|
Plantae
|
|
(unranked):
|
Angiosperms
|
|
(unranked):
|
Monocots
|
|
Order:
|
Asparagales
|
|
Family:
|
Iridaceae
|
|
Subfamily:
|
Crocoideae
|
|
Genus:
|
Crocus
|
|
Species:
|
C.
sativus
|
|
Binomial name
|
|
Crocus sativus
L.
|
Saffron (pronounced /ˈsæfrən/ or /ˈsæfrɒn/) is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus
sativus, commonly known as the saffron crocus. Crocus is
a genus in the family Iridaceae. Each saffron crocus grows to
20–30 cm (8–12 in) and bears up to four flowers, each with three
vivid crimson stigmas, which are each the distal end of a carpel. Together
with the styles, or stalks that connect the stigmas to their host
plant, the dried stigmas are used mainly in various cuisines as a seasoning and
colouring agent. Saffron, long among the world's most costly spices by
weight, is native to Greece or Southwest Asia and was first
cultivated in Greece. As a genetically monomorphic clone, it was
slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of
North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
The saffron
crocus, unknown in the wild, likely descends from Crocus
cartwrightianus, which originated in Crete; C. thomasii and C.
pallasii are other possible precursors. The saffron crocus is a triploid that
is "self-incompatible" and male sterile; it undergoes aberrant
meiosis and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction—all
propagation is by vegetative multiplication via manual
"divide-and-set" of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation. If C.
sativus is a mutant form of C. cartwrightianus, then it
may have emerged via plant breeding, which would have selected for
elongated stigmas, in late Bronze-Age Crete.
Saffron's
bitter taste and iodoform- or hay-like fragrance result from the
chemicals picrocrocin and safranal. It also
contains acarotenoid dye, crocin, which imparts a
rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. Its
recorded history is attested in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical
treatise compiled under Ashurbanipal and it has been traded
and used for over four millennia. Iran now accounts for approximately
90 percent of the world production of saffron. Because each flower's
stigmas need to be collected by hand and there are only a few per flower,
saffron is the most expensive spice in the world.
Further information: History of saffron
The ultimate
origin of the English word saffron is, like that of the
cultivated saffron clone itself, of somewhat uncertain origin. It immediately
stems from the Latin word safranum via
the 12th-century Old French term safran. Safranum derives
from the Persian intercessor زعفران, or za'ferân. Old
Persian is the first language in which using of saffron for cooking is recorded
thousands of years ago.
Description
Köhler's Medicinal Plants:
|
corolla
|
stamens
|
|
corm
|
stigma
|
The
domesticated saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, is an autumn-flowering perennial
plant unknown in the wild. Its progenitors are possibly the eastern
Mediterranean autumn-flowering Crocus cartwrightianusn which
is also known as "wild saffron" and originated in Greece. The
saffron crocus likely resulted when C. cartwrightianus was
subjected to extensive artificial selection by growers seeking
longer stigmas. C. thomasii and C. pallasii are
other possible sources.
It is a
sterile triploid form, which means that three homologous sets
of chromosomes compose each specimen's genetic complement;C.
sativus bears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in
total. Being sterile, the purple flowers of Crocus sativus fail
to produce viable seeds; reproduction hinges on human assistance: corms,
underground bulb-like starch-storing organs, must be dug up, broken apart, and
replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via this vegetative division
up to ten "cormlets" that can grow into new plants in the next
season. The compact corms are small brown globules that can measure as
large as 5 centimetres (2.0 in) in diameter, have a flat base, and are
shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibres; this coat is referred to as the
"corm tunic". Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like,
that grow up to 5 cm above the plant's neck.
C. sativus.
The plant grows
to a height of 20–30 cm (8–12 in), and sprouts 5–11 white and non-photosynthetic leafs
known ascataphylls. They are membrane-like structures that cover and
protect the crocus's 5–11 true leaves as they bud and develop. The latter are
thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are 1–3 mm in
diameter, either expand after the flowers have opened
("hysteranthous") or do so simultaneously with their blooming
("synanthous"). C. sativus cataphylls are suspected
by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigation relatively
early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures,
bear bracteoles, or specialised leaves that sprout from the flower
stems; the latter are known as pedicels.[2] After aestivating in
spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to 40 cm (16 in)
in length. In autumn, purple buds appear. Only in October, after most other
flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers
develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more
striated mauve. The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance. Upon
flowering, plants average less than 30 cm (12 in) in height. A
three-pronged style emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a
vivid crimson stigma 25–30 mm (0.98–1.2 in) in length.[
Cultivation
Saffron bulbs for vegetative reproduction
Crocus
sativus thrives in the
Mediterranean maquis, an ecotype superficially resembling the North
American chaparral, and similar climates where hot and dry summer
breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can nonetheless survive cold winters,
tolerating frosts as low as−10 °C (14 °F) and short periods of
snow cover. Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments
such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages1,000–1,500 mm
(39–59 in); saffron-growing regions in Greece (500 mm or 20 in
annually) and Spain (400 mm or 16 in) are far drier than the main
cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the
local wet seasons; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain
immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weatherduring flowering
promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm
the crops, and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up
corms. Nematodes, leaf rusts, and corm rot pose other
threats. Yet Bacillus subtilis inoculation may provide
some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass
yield.
Bihud, Iran.
The plants fare
poorly in shady conditions; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope
towards the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern
Hemisphere). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where
corms are lodged 7–15 cm (2.8–5.9 in) deep; its roots, stems, and
leaves can develop between October and February. Planting depth and corm
spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields.
Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron, though form fewer
flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by
planting 15 cm (5.9 in) deep and in rows 2–3 cm
(0.79–1.2 in) apart; depths of 8–10 cm (3.1–3.9 in) optimise
flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ
distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales.
C.
sativus prefers friable, loose,
low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-calcareous soils
with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil
organic content was historically boosted via application of some
20–30 tonnes of manure per hectare. Afterwards, and with no further manure
application, corms were planted. After a period of dormancy through the
summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn.
Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair:
after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes. All
plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks. Roughly 150 flowers
together yield but 1 g (0.035 oz) of dry saffron threads; to produce
12 g (0.42 oz) of dried saffron (or 72 g (2.5 oz) moist and
freshly harvested), 1 kg (2.2 lb) of flowers are needed; 1 lb
(0.45 kg) yields 0.2 oz (5.7 g) of dried saffron. One freshly
picked flower yields an average 30 mg (0.0011 oz) of fresh saffron or
7 mg (0.00025 oz) dried.
Chemistry
Structure of picrocrocin
β–D-glucopyranose derivative
|
|
safranal moiety
|
Saffron
contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. It also has many
nonvolatile active components, many of which are carotenoids,
including zeaxanthin, lycopene, and various α- and β-carotenes.
However, saffron's golden yellow-orange colour is primarily the result of
α-crocin. This crocin is trans-crocetin di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester;
it bears the systematic (IUPAC) name 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic
acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose
ester of the carotenoid crocetin. Crocins
themselves are a series of hydrophilic carotenoids that are
either monoglycosyl or diglycosyl polyene esters
of crocetin. Crocetin is aconjugated polyene dicarboxylic
acid that is hydrophobic, and thus oil-soluble. When
crocetin is esterified with two water-soluble gentiobioses,
which are sugars, a product results that is itself water-soluble.
The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may comprise more than 10%
of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for
colouring water-based and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes.
Esterification reaction between crocetinand gentiobiose.
Components of α–crocin:
The
bitter glucoside picrocrocin is responsible for saffron's
flavour. Picrocrocin (chemical formula:C16H26O7;
systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6-
trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carboxaldehyde) is a union of an aldehyde sub-element
known as safranal (systematic name:
2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carboxaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has
insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry
saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoid zeaxanthin that is produced via oxidative cleavage,
and is the glycoside of the terpene aldehydesafranal.
The reddish-coloured zeaxanthin is, incidentally, one of the carotenoids
naturally present within the retina of the human eye.
When saffron is
dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits
picrocrocin to yield D–glucose and a free safranal
molecule. Safranal, a volatile oil, gives saffron much
of its distinctive aroma. Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and
may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples. A
second element underlying saffron's aroma is
2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one, the scent of which has been
described as "saffron, dried hay like" Chemists found this to be
the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance despite its being present
in a lesser quantity than safranal. Dry saffron is highly sensitive to
fluctuating pH levels,
and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light and oxidizing agents.
It must therefore be stored away in air-tight containers in order to minimise
contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.
Grades
Red threads and yellow styles.
Saffron is
graded via laboratory measurement of crocin (colour), picrocrocin (taste), and
safranal (fragrance) content. Determination of non-stigma content
("floral waste content") and other extraneous matter such as
inorganic material ("ash") are also key. Grading standards are
set by the International Organization for Standardization, a
federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with
saffron and establishes four empirical colour intensity grades: IV (poorest),
III, II, and I (finest quality). Samples are assigned grades by gauging the
spice's crocin content, revealed by measurements of crocin-specific
spectroscopic absorbance. Graders measure absorbances of 440-nm
light by dry saffron samples. Higher absorbances imply greater crocin
concentration, and thus a greater colourative intensity. These data are
measured through spectrophotometry reports at certified
testing laboratories worldwide. These colour grades proceed from grades with absorbances
lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 190 or greater (for category
I). The world's finest samples (the selected most red-maroon tips of stigmas
picked from the finest flowers) receive absorbance scores in excess of 250.
Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO scores. However,
many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. They prefer
a more holistic method of sampling batches of thread for taste, aroma,
pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practised by
practised wine tasters.
Valuable stigmas, or threads, are tediously plucked, piled,
and dried.
Despite such
attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of
saffron adulteration—particularly among the cheapest grades—continues into
modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when
those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the Safranschou code.
Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like beets,
pomegranate fibres, red-dyed silk fibres, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and
odourless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibres with
viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil. However, powdered saffron is
more prone to adulteration, with turmeric, paprika, and other powders used as
diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabelled mixes of
different saffron grades. Thus, in India, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often
sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as
pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of
their income.
Varieties
Different cultivars give rise to stigmas that vary greatly
in their delectability and lustre.
The various
saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally
distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties from Spain, including
the tradenames "Spanish Superior" and "Creme", are
generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by
government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than
Spanish; the most intense varieties tend to be Iranian. Various
"boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland,
England, the United States, and other countries, some of them organically
grown. In the U.S., Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its "earthy"
notes—is marketed in small quantities
Consumers may
regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila"
saffron, or zafferano dell'Aquila, is defined by high safranal and
crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense
colour; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of
Italy's Abruzzo region, near L'Aquila. It was first
introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from Inquisition-era Spain. But the
biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is in San Gavino Monreale,
Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60% of Italian
production; it too has unusually high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal
content. Another is the "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron of
Kashmir (Crocus sativus 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most
difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop
failures in the Indian-controlled areas of Kashmir combine with an Indian
export ban to contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron
is recognisable by its dark maroon-purple hue; it is among the world's darkest,
which hints at strong flavour, aroma, and colourative effect.
Main article: History of saffron
A detail from the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco of
the "Xeste 3" building. It is one of many depicting saffron; they
were found at the Bronze Age settlement of Akrotiri, on the Aegean island of
Santorini.
The documented
history of saffron cultivation spans more than three millennia.[18] The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus wasCrocus
cartwrightianus. Human cultivators bred wild specimens by selecting for
unusually long stigmas; thus, a sterile mutant form of C.
cartwrightianus, C. sativus, likely emerged in late Bronze Age
Crete.
Eastern
Buddhist adepts pray in the Hundred Dragons Hall, Buddha
Tooth Relic Temple and Museum, Singapore.
Saffron was
detailed in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled underAshurbanipal.
Documentation of saffron's use over the span of 4,000 years in the
treatment of some 90 illnesses has been uncovered. Saffron-based pigments
have indeed been found in 50,000 year-old depictions of prehistoric places in
northwest Iran. The Sumerians later used wild-growing saffron in their
remedies and magical potions. Saffron was an article of long-distance
trade before the Minoan palace culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient
Persians cultivated Persian saffron (Crocus sativus 'Hausknechtii')
in Derbena, Isfahan, and Khorasan by the 10th century BC. At such sites,
saffron threads were woven into textiles, ritually offered to divinities,
and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes. Saffron threads
would thus be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for
bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as
a drugging agent and aphrodisiac. During his Asian campaigns, Alexander
the Great used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a
curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops imitated the practice from the
Persians and brought saffron-bathing to Greece.
Conflicting
theories explain saffron's arrival in South Asia. Kashmiri and Chinese accounts
date its arrival anywhere between 900–2500 years ago. Historians studying
ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC, attributing
it to a Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and
parks. Phoenicians then marketed
Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. Its use in foods and
dyes subsequently spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks wear
saffron-coloured robes; however, the robes are not dyed with costly saffron
but turmeric, a less expensive dye, or jackfruit. Monks'
robes are dyed the same color to show equality with each other, and turmeric or
ochre were the cheapest, most readily available dyes.Gamboge is now
used to dye the robes.
Some historians
believe that saffron came to China with Mongol invaders from Persia. Yet
saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the
forty-volume pharmacopoeia titled Shennong Bencaojing (神農本草經: "Shennong's Great Herbal", also known as Pen
Ts'ao or Pun Tsao), a tome dating from 200–300 BC.
Traditionally credited to the fabled Yan ("Fire")
Emperor (炎帝) Shennong,
it discusses 252 phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders. Nevertheless,
around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a
Kashmiri provenance. According to Chinese herbalist Wan Zhen, "[t]he
habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it
to the Buddha." Wan also reflected on how it was used in his time:
"The flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It
is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine.
Wider Near East and Western
Preserved "safran", Staatliches Museum für
Naturkunde, Karlsruhe, Germany.
The Minoans portrayed
saffron in their palace frescoes by 1500–1600 BC; they hint at its possible use
as a therapeutic drug. Ancient Greek legends told of sea voyages to Cilicia,
where adventurers sought what they thought to be the world's most valued
threads. Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is
bewitched and transformed into the first saffron crocus. Ancient
perfumers in Egypt, physicians in Gaza, townspeople in Rhodes,
and the Greek hetaerae courtesans used saffron in
their scented waters, perfumes and potpourris, mascaras and
ointments, divine offerings, and medical treatments.
In late Hellenistic Egypt, Cleopatra used
saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable. Egyptian
healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal
ailments Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such Levantine cities
as Sidon and Tyre. Aulus Cornelius Celsus prescribes
saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the mithridatium.
Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took it with
them when they settled in southern Gaul, where it was extensively cultivated
until Rome's fall. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to
France with 8th-century AD Moors or with the Avignon papacy in
the 14th century AD.
European
saffron cultivation plummeted after the Roman Empire went into eclipse. As with
France, the spread of Islamic civilization may have helped reintroduce the crop
to Spain and Italy. The 14th-century Black Death caused demand for
saffron-based medicaments to peak, and large quantities of threads had to be
imported via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands
such as Rhodes; the theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the
fourteen-week long "Saffron War". The conflict and resulting
fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred corm cultivation in Basel;
it thereby grew prosperous. The crop then spread to Nuremberg,
where endemic and insalubrious adulteration brought on the Safranschou code—whereby
culprits were variously fined, imprisoned, and executed. The corms soon
spread throughout England, especially Norfolk and Suffolk. The Essex town
of Saffron Walden, named for its new speciality crop, emerged as
England's prime saffron growing and trading centre. However, an influx of more
exotic spices—chocolate, coffee, tea, and vanilla—from newly contacted Eastern
and overseas countries caused European cultivation and usage of saffron to
decline. Only in southern France, Italy, and Spain did the clone
significantly endure.
Europeans
introduced saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the Schwenkfelder
Church left Europe with a trunk containing its corms; church members
had widely grown it in Europe.[38] By 1730, the Pennsylvania Dutch were
cultivating saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the
Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand
ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was
set equal to that of gold. The trade with the Caribbean later collapsed
in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-bearing merchant vessels
were destroyed. Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser
amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken
or trout dishes. American saffron cultivation survived into modern times
mainly in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.
Main article: Trade and use of saffron
|
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)
|
|
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
|
|
Energy
|
1,298 kJ
(310 kcal)
|
|
Carbohydrates
|
65.37 g
|
|
- Dietary fibre
|
3.9 g
|
|
Fat
|
5.85 g
|
|
- saturated
|
1.586 g
|
|
- monounsaturated
|
0.429 g
|
|
- polyunsaturated
|
2.067 g
|
|
Protein
|
11.43 g
|
|
Water
|
11.90 g
|
|
Vitamin
A
|
530
IU
|
|
Thiamine
(vit. B1)
|
0.115
mg (10%)
|
|
Riboflavin
(vit. B2)
|
0.267
mg (22%)
|
|
Niacin
(vit. B3)
|
1.460
mg (10%)
|
|
Vitamin
C
|
80.8
mg (97%)
|
|
Calcium
|
111
mg (11%)
|
|
Iron
|
11.10
mg (85%)
|
|
Magnesium
|
264
mg (74%)
|
|
Phosphorus
|
252
mg (36%)
|
|
Potassium
|
1724
mg (37%)
|
|
Sodium
|
148
mg (10%)
|
|
Zinc
|
1.09
mg (11%)
|
|
Selenium
|
5.6 μg
|
|
|
93 μg
|
|
Vitamin B6
|
1.010 mg
|
|
Ash
|
5.45 g
|
Edible thread portion only.[72]
Percentages are relative to
US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
|
Trade
"Ispanya saffron" at market in Turkey.
"Spanish saffron" is actually safflower.
Almost all
saffron grows in a belt bounded by the Mediterranean in the west and the rugged
region encompassing Iran and Kashmir in the east. The other continents, except
Antarctica, produce smaller amounts. Some 300 t (300,000 kg) of dried
whole threads and powder are gleaned yearly, of which 50 t
(50,000 kg) is top-grade "coupe" saffron. Iran answers for
around 90–93% of global production and exports much of it. A few of
Iran's drier eastern and southeastern provinces, including Fars, Kerman, and
those in the Khorasan region, glean the bulk of modern global production. In
2005, the second-ranked Greece produced 5.7 t (5,700.0 kg), while
Morocco and Kashmir, tied for third rank, each produced 2.3 t
(2,300.0 kg).
In recent
years, Afghan cultivation has risen; in restive Kashmir it has declined. Azerbaijan,
Morocco, and Italy are, in decreasing order, lesser producers. Prohibitively
high labour costs and abundant Iranian imports mean that only select locales
continue the tedious harvest in Austria, England, Germany, and
Switzerland—among them the Swiss village of Mund, whose annual output is a few
kilograms. Tasmania, China, Egypt,
France, Israel, Mexico, New Zealand, Turkey (mainly around the town of Safranbolu),
California, and Central Africa are microscale cultivators
To glean
1 lb (450 g) of dry saffron requires the harvest of 50,000–75,000
flowers; a kilogram requires 110,000–170,000 flowers. Forty hours of labour are needed to pick
150,000 flowers. Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and
(preferably) sealed in airtight containers. Saffron prices at wholesale
and retail rates range from US$500 to US$5,000 per pound, or
US$1,100–11,000/kg, equivalent to £2,500/€3,500 per pound or £5,500/€7,500 per
kilogram. The price in Canada recently rose to CAD 18,000 per
kilogram. In Western countries, the average retail price in 1974 was
$1,000/£500/€700 per pound, or US$2,200/£1,100/€1,550 per kilogram. In
February, 2013, a retail bottle containing .06 ounces could be purchased for
$16.26 or the equivalent of $4,336 per pound or as little as about $2,000/pound
in larger quantities. A pound contains between 70,000 and 200,000 threads.
Vivid crimson coloring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off
thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron. Saffron is the most
expensive spice in the world.
Use
Crushed saffron threads are soaked in hot—but not
boiling—water for several minutes prior to use in cuisine. This helps release
the beneficial components.
Saffron's aroma
is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy
or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and sweet.
Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron
is widely used in Indian, Persian, European, Arab, and Turkish cuisines.
Confectioneries and liquors also often include saffron. Common saffron
substitutes include safflower (Carthamus tinctorius,
which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "açafrão"),
annatto, and turmeric (Curcuma longa). Saffron has also been used as a
fabric dye, particularly in China and India, and in perfumery . It
is used for religious purposes in India, and is widely used in cooking in many
cuisines, ranging from the Milanese risotto of Italy to
the bouillabaisse of France to the biryani with
various meat accompaniments in South Asia.
Saffron has a
long medicinal history as part of traditional healing; several modern research
studies have hinted that the spice has possibleanticarcinogenic (cancer-suppressing),
anti-mutagenic (mutation-preventing), immunomodulating, and antioxidant-like
properties. Saffron stigmas, and even
petals, may be helpful for depression. Early studies show that saffron
may protect the eyes from the direct effects of bright light and retinal stress
apart from slowing down macular degeneration and retinitis
pigmentosa. (Most saffron-related research refers to the stigmas, but
this is often not made explicit in research papers.) Other controlled research
studies have indicated that saffron may have many potential medicinal
properties
